總結(jié)是指對某一階段的工作,、學習或思想中的經(jīng)驗或情況加以總結(jié)和概括的書面材料,，它可以明確下一步的工作方向,，少走彎路，少犯錯誤,，提高工作效益，因此,，讓我們寫一份總結(jié)吧,。什么樣的總結(jié)才是有效的呢？以下是小編為大家收集的總結(jié)范文,，僅供參考,，大家一起來看看吧。

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇一

1,、環(huán)境條件：適宜的溫度,、一定的水分、充足的空氣

2,、自身條件：具有完整的有生命力的胚,，不處于休眠期。

二,、測定種子的發(fā)芽率

發(fā)芽的種子數(shù)

1,、發(fā)芽率=————————*100%

共檢測的種子數(shù)

2、發(fā)芽率應(yīng)達到90%以上,，才能播種,。

三、種子萌發(fā)的過程

種子先吸收水分,。子葉或胚乳中的營養(yǎng)物質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)運給胚根,、胚芽、胚軸,。隨后,，胚根先突破種皮，發(fā)育成根,。胚軸伸長(發(fā)育成根莖相連的部分),，胚芽發(fā)育成莖、葉,。(注：食用豆芽的白胖部分是由胚軸發(fā)育來的)

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇二

一,、生物的特征

1,、生物的生活需要營養(yǎng)。生物的一生需要不斷從外界獲得營養(yǎng)物質(zhì),，維持生存,。

2、生物能進行呼吸,。絕大多數(shù)生物需要吸入氧氣,，呼出二氧化碳。

3,、生物能排出身體內(nèi)產(chǎn)生的廢物,。

4、生物能對外界刺激作出反應(yīng),。

5,、生物能生長和繁殖。

6,、生物還具有其他特征,。除病毒以外，生物都是由細胞構(gòu)成的,。

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇三

1.定義

是指對物質(zhì)進行加熱,，使物質(zhì)從固態(tài)變成液態(tài)的過程。它是物態(tài)變化中比較常見的類型,。熔化需要吸收熱量,，是吸熱過程。

2.晶體

(1)定義：晶體是由大量微觀物質(zhì)單位(原子,、離子,、分子等)按一定規(guī)則有序排列的結(jié)構(gòu)，因此可以從結(jié)構(gòu)單位的大小來研究判斷排列規(guī)則和晶體形態(tài),。

(2)特性：

晶體在熔化過程中溫度不變

晶體有一定的熔點,，即熔化的溫度

不同晶體熔點不同

3.非晶體

(1)定義：非晶體是指結(jié)構(gòu)無序或者近程有序而長程無序的物質(zhì)，組成物質(zhì)的分子(或原子,、離子)不呈空間有規(guī)則周期性排列的固體,，它沒有一定規(guī)則的外形。

(2)特性：非晶體沒有熔點

4.影響熔點的因素：(1)壓強(2)雜質(zhì),。

1.聲音的發(fā)生：由物體的振動而產(chǎn)生,。振動停止，發(fā)聲也停止,。

2.聲音的傳播：聲音靠介質(zhì)傳播,。真空不能傳聲。通常我們聽到的聲音是靠空氣傳來的,。

3.聲速：在空氣中傳播速度是：340米/秒,。聲音在固體傳播比液體快,，而在液體傳播又比空氣體快。

4.利用回聲可測距離：s=1/2vt

5.樂音的三個特征：音調(diào),、響度,、音色。(1)音調(diào):是指聲音的高低,，它與發(fā)聲體的頻率有關(guān)系,。(2)響度:是指聲音的大小，跟發(fā)聲體的振幅,、聲源與聽者的距離有關(guān)系,。

6.減弱噪聲的途徑：(1)在聲源處減弱;(2)在傳播過程中減弱;(3)在人耳處減弱。

7.可聽聲：頻率在20hz～20000hz之間的聲波：超聲波：頻率高于20000hz的聲波;次聲波：頻率低于20hz的聲波,。

8.超聲波特點：方向性好、穿透能力強,、聲能較集中,。具體應(yīng)用有：聲吶、b超,、超聲波速度測定器,、超聲波清洗器、超聲波焊接器等,。

9.次聲波的特點：可以傳播很遠,，很容易繞過障礙物，而且無孔不入,。一定強度的次聲波對人體會造成危害,，甚至毀壞機械建筑等。它主要產(chǎn)生于自然界中的火山爆發(fā),、海嘯地震等,，另外人類制造的火箭發(fā)射、飛機飛行,、火車汽車的奔馳,、核爆炸等也能產(chǎn)生次聲波。

1.光源：自身能夠發(fā)光的物體叫光源,。

2.光的直線傳播：光在均勻介質(zhì)中是沿直線傳播,。小孔成像條件：孔要足夠小特點：倒立、相似,、與小孔形狀無關(guān),。

3.光在真空中傳播速度最大，是3×10米/秒,，而在空氣中傳播速度也認為是3×10米/秒,。

4.我們能看到不發(fā)光的物體是因為這些物體反射的光射入了我們的眼睛,。

5.光的反射定律：反射光線與入射光線、法線在同一平面上,，反射光線與入射光線分居法線兩側(cè),，反射角等于入射角。(注：光路是可逆的)

鏡面反射vs漫反射：鏡面反射：平行光照射到光滑界面時,，反射光線依然平行,。

漫反射：平行光照射到凹凸不平的界面時，反射光線向四面八方散開,。

漫反射和鏡面反射一樣遵循光的反射定律,。

6.平面鏡成像特點：

(1)平面鏡成的是虛像;

(2)像與物體大小相等;

(3)像與物體到鏡面的距離相等;

(4)像與物體的連線與鏡面垂直。另外,，平面鏡里成的像與物體左右倒置,。

7.實像：由光線匯聚而成;虛像：一種視覺感覺，并不是由實際光線匯聚而成,。

8.平面鏡應(yīng)用：(1)成像;(2)改變光路;(3)增大視覺空間,。

9.平面鏡在生活中使用不當會造成光污染。

10.球面鏡包括凸面鏡(凸鏡,，發(fā)散光線)和凹面鏡(凹鏡,，匯聚光線)，它們都能成像,。具體應(yīng)用有：車輛的后視鏡,、商場中的反光鏡是凸面鏡;手電筒的反光罩、太陽灶,、醫(yī)術(shù)戴在眼睛上的反光鏡是凹面鏡,。

11.光的折射：光從一種介質(zhì)斜射入另一種介質(zhì)時，傳播方向一般發(fā)生變化的現(xiàn)象,。

12.光的折射規(guī)律：光從空氣斜射入水或其他介質(zhì),，折射光線與入射光線、法線在同一平面上;折射光線和入射光線分居法線兩側(cè),，折射角小于入射角;入射角增大時,，折射角也隨著增大;當光線垂直射向介質(zhì)表面時，傳播方向不改變,。(折射光路也是可逆的)

13.太陽光是由紅,、橙、黃,、綠,、藍、靛,、紫組成的,。

14.光的三原色是：紅,、綠、藍;顏料的三原色是：紅,、黃,、藍。

1.溫度：是指物體的冷熱程度,。測量的工具是溫度計,溫度計是根據(jù)液體的熱脹冷縮的原理制成的,。

2.攝氏溫度(℃):單位是攝氏度。1攝氏度的規(guī)定：把冰水混合物溫度規(guī)定為0度,，把一標準大氣壓下沸水的'溫度規(guī)定為100度,，在0度和100度之間分成100等分，每一等分為1℃,。

3.常見的溫度計有(1)實驗室用溫度計;(2)體溫計;(3)寒暑表,。

體溫計：測量范圍是35℃至42℃，每一小格是0.1℃,。

4.溫度計使用：(1)使用前應(yīng)觀察它的量程和最小刻度值;(2)使用時溫度計玻璃泡要全部浸入被測液體中,，不要碰到容器底或容器壁;(3)待溫度計示數(shù)穩(wěn)定后再讀數(shù);(4)讀數(shù)時玻璃泡要繼續(xù)留在被測液體中，視線與溫度計中液柱的上表面相平,。

5.固體、液體,、氣體是物質(zhì)存在的三種狀態(tài),。

6.熔化：物質(zhì)從固態(tài)變成液態(tài)的過程叫熔化。要吸熱,。

7.凝固：物質(zhì)從液態(tài)變成固態(tài)的過程叫凝固,。要放熱.

8.熔點和凝固點：晶體熔化時保持不變的溫度叫熔點;。晶體凝固時保持不變的溫度叫凝固點,。晶體的熔點和凝固點相同,。

9.晶體和非晶體的重要區(qū)別：晶體都有一定的熔化溫度(即熔點)，而非晶體沒有熔點,。

1.壓力:垂直作用在物體表面上的力叫壓力,。

2.壓強:物體單位面積上受到的壓力叫壓強。

3.壓強公式:p=f/s,，式中p單位是:帕斯卡,，簡稱:帕，1帕=1牛/米2,，壓力f單位是:牛;受力面積s單位是:米2

4.增大壓強方法:(1)s不變,，f↑;(2)f不變，s↓

(3)同時把f↑,，s↓,，而減小壓強方法則相反,。

1.液體壓強產(chǎn)生原因:是因液體受到重力。使用液體壓強計(u型管壓強計)測量液體內(nèi)部壓強,。

2.液體壓強特點:

(1)液體對容器底和壁都有壓強;

(2)液體內(nèi)部向各個方向都有壓強;

(3)液體的壓強隨深度增加而增大,，在同一深度，液體向各個方向的壓強相等;

(4)不同液體的壓強還跟密度有關(guān)系,。

3.液體壓強計算公式:(ρ是液體密度,，單位是千克/米3;g=9.8牛/千克;h是深度，指液體自由液面到液體內(nèi)部某點的豎直距離,，單位是米)

4.根據(jù)液體壓強公式:可得,，液體的壓強與液體的密度和深度有關(guān)，而與液體的體積和質(zhì)量無關(guān),。

5.流體壓強大小與流速關(guān)系:在流體中流速越大地方,，壓強越小;流速越小的地方，壓強越大,。

6.流體壓強大小與流速關(guān)系:在流體中流速越大地方,，壓強越小;流速越小的地方，壓強越大,。

拓展閱讀：初中物理學學習技巧

物理概念和術(shù)語是學習物理學的基礎(chǔ),，只有熟練掌握才能抓住問題的實質(zhì)和關(guān)鍵。學習物理概念的方法有五種：

對所學概念進行分類,，找出它們的相同點和不同點,，初中物理學的概念可分為四小類①概念的物理量是幾個物理量的積，例如：功,、熱量;②概念是幾個物理量的比值,，如：速度、密度,、壓強,、功率、效率;③概念反應(yīng)物質(zhì)的屬性,，例如：密度,、比熱、燃燒值,、熔點,、沸點、電阻率,、摩擦系數(shù)等;④概念沒有定義式,，只是描述性的，如力、沸點,、溫度,。

對于反映兩個互為可逆的物理量可用這種方法進行學習，例如：熔解與凝固,、汽化與液化,、升華與凝華、有用功與額外功,。

對于概念中有相同字眼的相似相關(guān)概念利用相比較學習的方法可以找出相同點和不同點,，建立內(nèi)在聯(lián)系。例如"重力"與"壓力",、"壓力與壓強",、"功與功率"、"功率與效率""虛像與實像",、"放大與變大"等,。

把相關(guān)聯(lián)的概念進行分組比較便于形成知識系統(tǒng)。例如：①力,、重力,、壓力、浮力,、平衡力,、作用力與反作用力。②速度,、效率,、功率、壓強,。③杠桿,、支點,、動力,、阻力、動力臂,、阻力臂,、力的作用線。④熔解,、液化,、蒸發(fā)、沸騰,、汽化,、液化、升華、凝華,。⑤串聯(lián),、并聯(lián)、混聯(lián),。⑥通路,、短路、斷路,。⑦能,、機械能、功能,、勢能,。

抓住概念中關(guān)鍵字眼進行學習，例如"重力"由于地球的吸引而受到的豎直向上的力叫重力,，這個概念中"地球的吸引""豎直向下"就是關(guān)鍵字眼,，值得反復(fù)回味和理解。

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇四

細胞是構(gòu)成生物體的結(jié)構(gòu)和功能基本單位,。

有機物(一般含碳,，可燒)：糖類、脂類,、蛋白質(zhì),、核酸，這些都是大分子

無機物(一般不含碳)：水,、無機物,、氧等，這些都是小分子

葉綠體：進行光合作用,，是細胞內(nèi)的把二氧化碳和水合成有機物,，并產(chǎn)生氧。

線粒體：進行呼吸作用,，是細胞內(nèi)的“動力工廠”“發(fā)動機”,。

二者聯(lián)系：都是細胞中的能量轉(zhuǎn)換器

二者區(qū)別：葉綠體將光能轉(zhuǎn)變成化學能儲存在有機物中;線粒體分解有機物，將有機物中儲存的化學能釋放出來供細胞利用,。

1,、多莉羊的例子p55，

2,、細胞核中的遺傳信息的載體——dna

3,、dna的結(jié)構(gòu)像一個螺旋形的梯子

4、基因是dna上的一個具有特定遺傳信息的片斷

5,、dna和蛋白質(zhì)組成染色體

不同的生物個體,，染色體的形態(tài),、數(shù)量完全不同;

同種生物個體，染色體在形態(tài),、數(shù)量保持一定;

染色體容易被堿性染料染成深色;

染色體數(shù)量要保持恒定,，否則會有嚴重的遺傳病。

6,、細胞的控制中心是細胞核

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇五

1.方程：含有未知數(shù)的等式就叫做方程.

2. 一元一次方程：只含有一個未知數(shù)(元)x,，未知數(shù)x的指數(shù)都是1(次)，這樣的方程叫做一元一次方程.例如： 1700+50x=1800,， 2(x+1.5x)=5等都是一元一次方程.

3.方程的解：使方程中等號左右兩邊相等的未知數(shù)的值,，叫做方程的解.

注：⑴ 方程的解和解方程是不同的概念，方程的解實質(zhì)上是求得的結(jié)果,，它是一個數(shù)值(或幾個數(shù)值),，而解方程的含義是指求出方程的解或判斷方程無解的過程. ⑵ 方程的解的檢驗方法，首先把未知數(shù)的值分別代入方程的左,、右兩邊計算它們的值,，其次比較兩邊的值是否相等從而得出結(jié)論.

等式的性質(zhì)(1)：等式兩邊都加上(或減去)同個數(shù)(或式子)，結(jié)果仍相等.

等式的性質(zhì)(1)用式子形式表示為：如果a=b,，那么a±c=b±c

等式的性質(zhì)(2)：等式兩邊乘同一個數(shù),，或除以同一個不為0的數(shù)，結(jié)果仍相等,，等式的性質(zhì)(2)用式子形式表示為：如果a=b,，那么ac=bc;如果a=b(c≠0)，那么ca=cb

把等式一邊的某項變號后移到另一邊,，叫做移項.

1. 括號外的因數(shù)是正數(shù),，去括號后各項的符號與原括號內(nèi)相應(yīng)各項的符號相同.

2. 括號外的因數(shù)是負數(shù)，去括號后各項的符號與原括號內(nèi)相應(yīng)各項的符號改變.

1. 去分母(方程兩邊同乘各分母的最小公倍數(shù))

2. 去括號(按去括號法則和分配律)

3. 移項(把含有未知數(shù)的項移到方程一邊,，其他項都移到方程的另一邊,，移項要變號)

4. 合并(把方程化成ax = b (a≠0)形式)

5. 系數(shù)化為1(在方程兩邊都除以未知數(shù)的系數(shù)a，得到方程的解x=a(b).

1. 審：審題,，分析題中已知什么,，求什么，明確各數(shù)量之間的關(guān)系.

2. 設(shè)：設(shè)未知數(shù)(可分直接設(shè)法,，間接設(shè)法)

3. 列：根據(jù)題意列方程.

4. 解：解出所列方程.

5. 檢：檢驗所求的解是否符合題意.

6. 答：寫出答案(有單位要注明答案)

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇六

定語從句：

（一）基礎(chǔ)：引導詞---who, which, that, whom,

練習1.i like cities___________are quiet and clean. 2.i prefer students _________are hard- working.

3.i hate tv shows _________ are noisy and music __________ is gentle and quiet attracts me a lot.

food __________tastes delicious is not always healthy.

boys ___________ are playing basketballs over there are from class fifteen.

books ____________ are written by lu xun are worth reading.

town ___we visited last week is much larger than book ___ he bought is very interesting.

（二）特例：只用that的情況

1,、先行詞被___________或___________所修飾,，或本身是______________________時,，只能用that，

2.被修飾的先行詞為________________________________________________等不定代詞時,只能用that.

3.先行詞被_____________________________________________等詞修飾時,，只能用that,，而不用which。

4.先行詞里同時含有______________________，如i can remember well the persons and some pictures that i saw in the room.

5.以______________________引導的特殊疑問句,，只能用that.如：who is the girl that is crying?

練習1. i am interested in everything___ is about the 20xx world cup.

2. is there anything___i can do for you? 3. this is the very bike ______i lost

my surprise, he gave me nothing __ i need. is the best dictionary __ i have ever used.

6. he was the first person _______passed the exam.

talked happily about the men and books________interested him greatly.

（三）whose 1. the student ______father works in the factory is sitting there.

2. i like the rooms ______windows face south.3. this is the desk ______legs were broken.

4the woman ___ umbrella you took is angry about comes a girl ___ handwriting is the best .

6the banana __skin is green can’t be eaten.7that tall tree _ leaves are yellow is very old.

（四）從句謂語單復(fù)數(shù)由先行詞確定,，時態(tài)由從句時間狀語決定，不必跟主句保持一致,。

1-he is one of the boys who ____ (doesn’t, don’t) finish doing homework.

2-i like films which ____(be) exciting and interesting.

3-children who often ____(eat) junk food are easy to become fat and unhealthy.

4-that boy who _____(run) fastest is from our class.

5those boys who ____ playing the guitar are from our school. (be)

6the trees which _____ (be) watered yesterday belong to them. 7the man who ____ over there is our teacher.(stand) 8those boys who ____ playing the guitar are from our school. (be)

9mr. brown is one of the foreign experts _______ _________ (work) in china.

10i’m one of the boys ______ ________(like) english best.

(五)“介詞＋關(guān)系代詞”注意：介詞的選用要考慮：

a.與先行詞的搭配關(guān)系

1）i will never forget the day __________ i joined the army.

2) i will never forget the days ______ i worked here.

3) i will never forget the year ____________ my son went to college.

b.與謂語動詞的搭配習慣

1）have you found the book ________i paid 29 dollars?

2）have you found the book ________i spent 29 dollars?

3) have you found the book _____________we learnt a lot?

4) have you found the book _______she often talks?

關(guān)系副詞的用法

練習：1. it must be a good place ________________we can do a lot of exercise.

is the village _________________we visited last week.

house _______ we live in is very big./ the house _______ we live is very big

4. the woman ___________ talked to you just now is a doctor. the woman ______ you talked to is my sister.

the woman to ___________ you talked is my sister. 5. this is the hospital ____________ i was born in.

this is the hospital in _________i was born. this is the hospital____________ i was born.

綜合練習一.用適當?shù)年P(guān)系代詞或關(guān)系副詞填空

1. the boy ______ is wearing the black jacket is very clever.

2. this is the present ____he gave me for my man _______ talked to you just now is an engineer.

4. he talked about the teachers and schools _______ he had visited.

5. there is nothing in the world ______can frighten him.6. we visited a factory _______makes toys for children.

7. is this the place _______ your father once lived 8. i’ll never forget the days _______ i joined the league.

9the car______my father bought last month is beautiful.10the man______hair is white is his grandfather.

二( ) likes music ___ is quiet and gentle. a. when b. that c. where d. who

( )2.--is the girl _ is interviewing the manager of that company your friend--yes, she is a journalist from cctv.

a. whom b. which c. who d. whose

( )3 yao ming is a famous basketball star ___ is playing in the nba. a. whose b. who c. what d. which

( )4. the doctor ___i am waiting for is mr. smith. a. which b. whom c. whose d. why

( )5. --- do you know hong zhanhui? ---yes. he’s the college student ____ has moved chinese people a lot.

a. who b. which c. what d. whom

( )6. in my family, my sister is the only person __ loves chocolate. a. which b. who c. whom d. she

( )7. this is the place ____ the old man lived last year. a. when b. where c. that

( ) 8. the song ___ jay zhou sings are popular with students. a. why b. whom c. what d. which

( )9. the farmer was very thankful to the doctor ___ treated his son. a. what b. which c. who d. whose

( )10.i like to live in a house__ is big and bright. a. that b. who c. how d. why

( )11. the young lady ___ we met yesterday is our new math teacher. a. what b. whose c. whom d. which

( )12. --can you introduce the town to me? --ok. this is the town in __ i was born. a. that b. who c. which

( )13. miss green is the only person __ can help you with your english. a. she b. whom c. which d. who

( )14. i like the second football match ___was held last week. a. which b. who c. that d. /

( )15. is there anything ____ to you? a. that is belonged b. that belongs c. that belong d. which belongs

( )16. i hate people ___ don’t help others when they are in trouble. a. who b. which c. they

( )17. this is the only book ___i am looking for. a. that b. which c. who d. whom

( )18 her sister__ you met at my home was a teacher of english. a. whom b. that is c. which d. who is

( )19 the book__is sold out at the moment. need bwhat you need you need it d that you need it

( )20 i'm one of the boys ______never late for school. a. that is b. who are c. who am d. who is

( )21.__cleans the classroom can go home first. a. anyone b. those who c. however d. the one who

( )22. the old man __yesterday is a scientist.a.i spoke b. i spoke to c. whom i spoke d. that i spoke to him

中考定語從句真題演練

1.--- is the girl __ is interviewing the manager of that company your friend? --yes, she is a journalist from cctv. a. whom b. which c. who d. whose

2. do you still remember the movie _____ we saw last weekend? a. who b. what c. that d. whom

3. ---who is your new english teacher? ---elena, the woman ____ is wearing a red t-shirt over there.

a.不填b. whom c. whose d. who

4. is that the man _____ helped us a lot after the earthquake? a. whose b. which c. when d. who

5. ---what are you looking for? --- i’m looking for the pen ___ i bought yesterday. a. who b. which c. whose

6. this is the novel_____ written by guo jingming. a. who b. what c. that d. /

7. we should be ready to help the people ____ are in trouble. a. whose b. whom c. which d. who

8. two years has passed, but chinese people still remember those exciting days ____ they spent during the beijing 20xx olympic games. a. that b. who c. when

9. the magician _____ played magic tricks in 20xx cctv spring festival gala is liu qian. he is popular in china now. a. whose b. who c. which

10. july likes music very much. she likes music ____ she can dance to. a. what b. who c. that

11. at school, you should do the things _____ are allowed by the teachers. a. that b. when c. what

12. thought is the key _____ opens the doors of the world. a. why b. where c. which d. who

13. the gentlemen ___ are coming to my office tomorrow are my classmates many years ago.

a. whom b. who c. those d. which

14. that’s the man _____ house was destroyed in the storm. a. that b. whose c. who d. which

15. the girl ____ i just talked with is ben’s sister. a. whom b. which c. she

16. i love people ____ are friendly to others. a. which b. whose c. what d. who

17. it’s time to say goodbye to my school. i’ll always remember the people _____ have helped me.

a. who b. what c. which d. where

18. i like the teacher ____ classes are very interesting and creative. a. which b. who c. what d. whose

19. do you know the boy ____ is sitting next to peter? ---yes. he is peter’s friend. they are celebrating his ____ birthday. a. who, ninth b. that, nineth c. /, nineth d. which, ninth

ntemple__lies in the west of zhengzhou welcomes the visitors from abroad.

二賓語從句

1賓語從句的學習要注意三個方面

第一：語序：在賓語從句中,，一律用___________。

如where does she live? ( do you know?) ----do you know where she lives?

***幾個特殊的特殊疑問句

which is the way to the nearest shop?/ what’s wrong with you?/ what’s up?/ what’s the matter?

這幾個特殊疑問句本身就是陳述語序,在賓語從句中不需調(diào)整語序,。

第二：時態(tài); 1）如果主句是___________,，賓語從句時態(tài)根據(jù)實際情況而定.

如：1. it’s going to rain. i think. ---i think it’s going to rain.

2. “i will go with you .” he says. ---he says he will go with me.

3. he studied english ten years ago. i know. i know he studied english ten years ago.

2）主句是___________，賓語從句要用___________,。

如：it’s going to rain. i thought. ---i thought it was going to rain.

“i will go with you.” he said. ---he said he would go with me.

3).若從句表達的是___________,，規(guī)律，不管主句是什么時態(tài),，從句都用___________,。

如1 the earth turns round the sun. the teacher told us---the teacher told us that the earth turns round the sun.

2 light travels much faster than sound. she said … ---she said that light travels much faster than sound.

第三：連接詞1)如果被連接的句子是___________，那么連接詞用___________, (也可省)

如1. he’ll be back in a month. ( i hear…) i hear ( that ) he will be back in a month.

2. i have been to the great wall once. ( he tells me…) he tells me ( that ) he has been to the great wall once.

2.)如果被連接的句子是___________,則用連接詞___________

如：*does he live in that house? ( she asked me …) she asked me if/ whether he lived in that house.

*have you finished your homework? ( i want to know…) i want to know if you have finished your homework.

3) ___________句,，用原句中的特殊疑問詞引導：what, who, where, when, which, why, how (many/ much/ often/ long/ old).如：who are you waiting for? can you tell me? --- can you tell me who you are waiting for?

what did he do yesterday? i don’t know. ---i don’t know what he did yesterday.

***其中以wh-疑問詞或how引導的賓語從句與動詞不定式可相互轉(zhuǎn)換

如i don’t know what i can do.可以說成i don’t know what to do.

the policeman showed me where i could get books.可以說成the policeman showed me where to get books.

can you tell me how i can make a kite?可以說成can you tell me how to make a kite?

4).賓語從句___________,。在_________________________________等動詞所跟的賓語中，如果從句謂語是否定的,，一般要將否定詞not轉(zhuǎn)移至主句謂語上去,，而將從句謂語改為肯定形式。如：i don’t think he has time to play with the girl.

二．綜合練習

1．i want to know __

a. whom is she looking after b. whom she is looking c．whom is she looking d．whom she is looking after

2．i don't know _________ the day after tomorrow．

a．when does he come b．how will he come c．if he comes d．whether he'll come

3．could you tell me _________ the nearest hospital is,？a．what b．how c．whether d．where

4．could you tell me _________ the radio without any help,？

a．how did he mend b．what did he mend c．how he mended d．what he mended

5．i don't know if he____ tomorrow. if he _____，i'll tell you．

a．comes, comes b．will come, will come c. will come, comes d. comes, will come

6．do you know where _________ now,？a．he lives b．does he live c．he lived d．did he live

7．do you know what time ___,？a．the train leave b．does the train leave c．will the train leave dthe train leaves

8．i don't know _________．can you tell me，please,？a．how the two players are old

b．how old are the two players c．the two players are how old d．how old the two players are

9．the small children don't know _________．a(chǎn)．what is their stockings in

b．what is in their stockings c．where is their stockings in d．what in their stockings

10．i can't understand _________．a(chǎn)．what does christmas mean b．what christmas does mean

c．what mean christmas does d．what christmas means

11 . when the job______, let me know. a .do b .done c .is done d .finished

12 .she asked me if i knew__ .a .whose pen is it b .whose pen it was c whose pen it is d .whose pen was it 13 .miss li wants to know _____________next week . a .when my uncle leaves

b .when will my uncle leave c .where my uncle will stay d .where does my uncle stay

14 .could you tell me ________________with the money ? a .how to do b .what should i do c .how i should do d .what i should do

中考賓語從句真題演練

( )1. everyone can play an important role in the society．a(chǎn)s members,，we should try our best to do__.

a. what we should do b. what should we do c. how we should do

( )2. --i really hope to keep in touch with lily. --sorry. i don't know __.

a. what her name is b. what her job is c. what her number is d. when she left

( )3 —can you tell me ______? —by doing more speaking. a how i will improve my english

b. which way can i choose c. how do i deal with my english d. what’s wrong with my english

( )4. how lovely the dog is ! can you tell me _____?

a. where did you get it b. where will you get it c. where you got it

( )5.. --excuse me, could you tell me ____ the book about aliens? --sure, take the escalator to the second floor.

a. where i can buy b. where can i buy c. when can i buy d. when i can buy

( )6-“do you know_ have our summer holiday?”-“next week.” will we are wec. when we will

( )7 ---do you know ____ the mp4 yesterday? -- sorry, i’ve no idea about it.

a. how much did he pay for b. how much he paid for c. he paid for how much d. he paid how much for

( )8--what time will mr. brown be back to china? -- sorry. i don’t know ___.

a. when did he go abroad he is going abroad soon will he be back dhow long he will stay abroad

（）9. you can’t image ___ when the pupils received these nice presents on children’s day.

a. how they were excited b. how excited they were c. how excited were they d. they were how excited

（）10. –can you tell me ______?–she is in the computer lab.

a. where linda was b. where is linda c. where was linda d. where linda

( )11. –do you know _______ the capital museum? –next friday.

a. when will they visit b. when they will visit c. when did they visit d. when they visited

( )12. he wanted to know____the english party.

a. when will we have b. when we will have c. when would we have d. when we would have

( )13. i want to know_______.

a. when we should arrive at the airport b. when should we arrive at the airport

c. when the airport we should arrive at d. when the airport should we arrive at

( )14. –david, look at the man in white over there. can you tell me_______? –he is a doctor.

a. who is he b. who he is c. what is he d. what he is

( )15. –do you know___the girl in red is? –i’m not sure. maybe a teacher. a. when b. how c. where d. what

( )16. your t-shirt is so cool. could you tell me ________?

a. where you buy it b. where do you buy it c. where you bought it d. where did you buy it is

( )17. i really want to know ____ . a. what is wrong with my brother

b. how will he go to beijing tomorrow c. if had he bought that car d. where did he go yesterday

( )18. excuse me, sir. could you tell me ?

is the bank nearestb. where is the nearest bank the nearest bank isd. the nearest bank is where

( )’s mother looked for her for half an hour, but couldn’t find ____.

a. what lily was. b. what was lily c. where lily was d. where was lily

( )20--could you tell me___? he is wanted by the head teacher.--sorry, i’ve no he _ here just now．

a. where tim was, was b. where is tim，was c. where tim is,，was d．where tim is,，is

三、狀語從句：

一）.條件狀語從句：引導詞為:if, unless,。

形式：

主句_______________,從句______________.

練習：1.i am waiting for my friend.____________, i’ll do shopping alone.

she comes she will come she doesn’t come she didn’t come

2.i am sure i can make it better, if our teacher _________me a second give

art club is for members only. you can’t go in___you are a member. e

4.i ________the cds to you if i have time tomorrow. return ed returned

5. 1）you won’t pass the final exam ___________(除非)you work hard.

2) the children __________ climb the mountain if it __________________(不下雨)

3) _______________________if he comes. (給我打電話）

二）時間狀語從句：(常見從屬連詞有when,before, after, until, as soon as, while…)

1）as soon as he _____in paris, he will call you. d s

2）don’t leave until the d ng

3）you can go skating after you the job ed the job ing the job

4) i’ll tell her the good news when he _____ back.

5）father was watching tv ________ mum was washing dishes. b. while

6）i was watching tv ____ you called me last night.

7) i ______ here since i came to china. lived living d. had living

8).my grandma didn’t go to sleep______ i got back home.

三）原因狀語從句：(常用連詞有because, since, as)

1. tom is ill at home, _____he can’t come here. e

2.—why did you come to school late this morning?--___i watched the football world cup until 12:00 last night. e

3.i hope to go to france some day__there are many museums there. b. unless c. because d. where

四）結(jié)果狀語從句：由so… that…/such…that/so that引導的從句（so后接形,、副原級）

1）與too…to…句型的轉(zhuǎn)換：

he ran so fast that i couldn’t catch up with him. =______________________________________________

the box is so heavy that i can’t carry it= ___________________________________________________

2）“so… that +從句”與“enough to”的替換

he’s so strong that he can carry the box.=___________________________________________________

he is not old enough to go to school.=________________________________________________________

3)so that…/ so…that…/such…that ____________________________________________________________

如：he got up early in the morning so that he could catch the early bus.

the boy is so strong that he can lift up the heavy stone. he is such a clever boy that all of us like him.

練習：1.--he was _______tired ______he fell asleep as soon as he lay down. -- oh, we can go out and let him have a good rest..;to ; that ; to ; that

were _______many people ____i couldn’t find where she is. ;that ;as ;that ;that

3. he ran as fast as possible__he could reach school on time. order to b so as to c such that d so that

4. they are ___interesting books __ i want to read them once more. that …that …to …that

綜合練習

may leave the classroom when you__writing. finish bare finishing c have finished dhad finished

2. would you give johnny this letter if you ________ to see him this week.

a. will happen b. happen c. are happened d. happened

3. she was busy, ____she couldn’t go to your birthday party last night. a. and b. so c. or d. but

4. english is ________ a useful language ________ it is spoken in many countries of the world.

a. so…that b. such…that c. so…because d. such…because

5. don’t cross the street __ the traffic lights are green. a. after b. until c. while d. since

6. your dream won’t come true__ you know what your dream is. a. after b. unless c. while d. since

7. --could you ask him if he __to my birthday party next sunday? –i will, if i __ him this afternoon.

a. comes, meet b. will come, will meet c. comes, will meet d. will come, meet

8. sarah is ______ a hard-working girl ______ she often works late into night.

a. so; that b. too; to c. such; that d. not only; but also

狀語從句真題練習

1.—where was your brother at this time last night?—he was writing an e-mail ___i was watching tv at home.

soon as

film “kung fu panda” is___interesting__i would like to see it again. ,that ,to ,as that

will call me as soon as he ___home. got get

4. we will have no water to drink___we don’t protect the earth.

won’t start the meeting ___our teacher arrives.

promises to join in the football match____he has to help his parents on the farm..

a. if c. unless d. when

7.___it’s difficult to make her dream come ture, she never gives up. e

8.---could you tell me when mr. li___in huanggang?---sure. when he ___, i’ll call you.

s; will arrive arrive; arrives s; arrives arrive; will arrive

summer, food goes bad easily__it is put in the refrigerator.

10.a moment, please. i’m checking if mr. smith__free tomorrow. be be

11.i didn’t go to bed __my mother came back late last ;

up,___you will miss the early train. a. or

13.---tommy, do you know if frank___to the theatre with us this sunday if it ___?---sorry, i have no idea.

go, is fine; , is fine go, is going to be fine ; will be fine

a beautiful painting it is! i’ve never seen ___painting. a b.a better

15.i don’t know __he will come tomorrow.___he comes, i’ll tell you.

, whether r, whether , that , if

復(fù)合句綜合檢測

( ) this museum_ they visited last month? a. that b. where c. which d. the one

( )2. is that book ____ he borrowed on friday? a. that b. which c. who d. the one

( )3 the second book__i want to read is business at the speed of thought. a. which b. what c. that d. as

( )4 –do you know the man __is running along the street? a who b which c whom

( )5. without friendship, one can’t be happy although he is rich enough. as for me, i will never forget the days ___i spent with my dearest friend. a that b when c who

( )6 this is the best tv play __we have seen this year. a when b what c who d that

( )7--have you found the information about famous people ____you can use for report?

--not yet. i’ll search some on the internet. a which b who c what d whom

( )8--have you been to the sports center___ is just opened in town? - -no, no yet.

a where b who c that d when

( )9 --bob, where do you work?--i work for a company ___sells cars. a which b where c what

( )10____ have finished the work can leave. a. those who b. anyone c. the one who

( )11. the building that ___new is our school. a. is b. are c. was d. were

( )12. the pandas that we saved ____better now. a. are b. were c. is d. was

( )13 this is the only thing _________ i have

( )14.--could you tell me____?--sorry, i don’t know. i was not at the meeting. a. what does he say at the meeting. b what did he say at the meeting. c. what he says at the meeting d. what he said at the meeting

( )15. no one can be sure____ in a million years.

a. what man looks like b. what will man look like c. man will look like what d. what man will look like

( )16. -- could you tell me ____?-- she is a student in eton school.

a. where kate is studying b. how kate studies c .why kate was studying d. when kate studied

( )17.-- could you tell me___ yesterday?-- about two hours. a. how long it takes to fly to guilin b. how long it took to fly to guilin long does it take to fly to guiln d. how long did it take to fly to guilin

( )18. please tell me____.a. what is wrong with the boy b. what is the boy wrong c. what wrong the boy is

( )19. she will hate him when she _more about him . .know know dis going to know

( )20. --excuse me. do you know_____?--sorry, i don’t know. a. where is no. 1 middle school

b. where no. 1 middle school is c. no. 1 middle school is where d. no. 1 middle school where is

( )21. at the science museum,，the boys and girls get to know__________. a. what is the spaceship like

b. what the spaceship looks like c. how the spaceship looks 1ike d. how does the spaceship1ook like

( )22. he didn’t tell me ____.

a. which floor did he live on b. which floor he lived on c. which floor he lived d. he lived on which floor

( )23. i’m new here. could you tell me__, please?a. when does the first bus arrive b. when the first bus arrives

c. when did the first bus arrive will the first bus arrive

( )24. i wonder how long_______school?

a. has he been away from b. he has been away c. he has left d. he has been away from

( )25. ---we can use msn to talk with each other on the internet. ---really? will you please show ____it? ‘

a. what to use b. how to use c. how can i use d. where can i use

( )26. the teacher asked the students . a. if they were interested in chatting online

b. when was albert einstein born c. what they will do with the computers d. how often they go to movies

( )27---could you tell me how long __the book?--three days.

a.i can keep i borrow c.i can borrow d. can i keep

( )28.i can’t understand ___the boy alone at home.

she left she leave had she left she leave

( )29. you will not succeeded if you ______ harder. a. will work b. won’t work c. work d. don’t work

( ) clearly __your teacher can understand you correctly. e dso that

( )31.______he failed , he went on doing the experiment .a. even b. yet c. although d. in spite of

( ) dog went out while we __ supper. a. had b. had had c. were having d. would have

( ) brother has worked there ________ he left schoo b. after c. since d. until

( ) boy didn’t stop talking ____the second bell rang. b. until c. after d. because

( )35. __i came into the office, the teacher were having a meeting. b. when c. once d. since

( )36.i was about to leave my house __ the telephone rang. b. as c. when d. since

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇七

(1)凡能寫成 形式的數(shù),，都是有理數(shù).正整數(shù),、0、負整數(shù)統(tǒng)稱整數(shù);正分數(shù),、負分數(shù)統(tǒng)稱分數(shù);整數(shù)和分數(shù)統(tǒng)稱有理數(shù).注意：0即不是正數(shù),，也不是負數(shù);-a不一定是負數(shù)，+a也不一定是正數(shù);p不是有理數(shù);

(2)有理數(shù)的分類: ① 整數(shù) ②分數(shù)

(3)注意：有理數(shù)中,，1,、0、-1是三個特殊的數(shù),，它們有自己的特性;這三個數(shù)把數(shù)軸上的數(shù)分成四個區(qū)域,，這四個區(qū)域的數(shù)也有自己的特性;

(4)自然數(shù) 0和正整數(shù);a0 a是正數(shù);a0 a是負數(shù);

a≥0 a是正數(shù)或0 a是非負數(shù);a≤ 0 ? a是負數(shù)或0 a是非正數(shù).

(1)正數(shù)的絕對值越大，這個數(shù)越大;

(2)正數(shù)永遠比0大,，負數(shù)永遠比0小;

(3)正數(shù)大于一切負數(shù);

(4)兩個負數(shù)比大小,，絕對值大的反而小;

(5)數(shù)軸上的兩個數(shù)，右邊的數(shù)總比左邊的數(shù)大;

(6)大數(shù)-小數(shù) 0,，小數(shù)-大數(shù) 0.

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇八

史鐵生,，1951年生于北京，著名小說家,。16歲畢業(yè)于北京清華大學附屬中學,。18歲去陜北延安插隊。21歲因病致癱,，轉(zhuǎn)回北京,。23歲起到北京某街道工廠做了7年的工人。后又患尿毒癥,，靠透析維持生命,。28歲發(fā)表第一篇小說《法學教授及其夫人》，以后陸續(xù)發(fā)表中,、短篇小說,，散文多篇，其散文《我與地壇》被公認為中國近50年來最優(yōu)秀的散文之一,。小說《老屋小記》獲首屆魯迅文學獎,。

tān huàn shì xiǔ qiáo cuì

癱 瘓 侍弄 整宿 憔 悴

shàn wān jué màn

仿膳 豌豆 訣別 爛漫

fù xù dāo

翻來覆去 絮絮叨叨

侍弄：經(jīng)營照管

憔悴：形容人瘦弱，面色不好看

訣別：多指不再相見的分別

絮絮叨叨：形容說話啰嗦,，嘮叨,。

喜出望外：遇到出乎意料的事情而特別高興。

第一部分（1）：母親忍受著病痛的折磨,，對“我”百般撫慰,。

第二部分（2—5）：母親準備帶“我”去看菊花時，因病去世了,。

第三部分（6）：妹妹推“我”去北海賞菊,，表達了對母親的懷念。

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇九

1,、公元前20xx年,，禹建立夏朝，這是我國歷第一個奴隸制王朝,。p15

2,、湯滅夏，建立商朝,，盤庚遷殷后,，商朝統(tǒng)治穩(wěn)定。p21

3,、公元前1046年,，周武王經(jīng)牧野之戰(zhàn)滅商，建立周朝,，定都鎬,。p23

4、西周實行分封制,，加強了對各地的統(tǒng)治,。p23—24

5、公元前771年,，西周滅亡,。p24

6、商朝的司母戊鼎是世界上已發(fā)現(xiàn)的的青銅器,，湖南寧鄉(xiāng)出土了造型奇特的四羊方尊p26

7,、“三星堆”文化遺址出土的青銅面具、大型青銅立人像,、青銅神樹等引起了中外人士的矚目,。p27

8、農(nóng)業(yè),、畜牧業(yè),、手工業(yè)和商業(yè)的繁榮，形成了我國夏,、商西周燦爛的青銅文明,。p27

9、公元前770年,，周平王東遷洛,，史稱“東周”。東周分為春秋和戰(zhàn)國兩個時期,。p30

10,、春秋五霸：齊桓公,、晉文公、楚莊王,、吳王夫差,、越王勾踐。p30—32

11,、齊桓公提出“尊王攘夷”的口號,。p31

政治初一上冊知識點總結(jié)篇十

一、生物區(qū)別于非生物要看生命現(xiàn)象：

新陳代謝

2.生長發(fā)育

3.繁殖

4.遺傳變異

5.應(yīng)激性

病毒是個特殊的例子：病毒無細胞結(jié)構(gòu),，繁殖方式是自我復(fù)制,，寄生生活，所以是生物,。

二,、新陳代謝是其他各項生命活動的基礎(chǔ)。

三,、探究實驗要求設(shè)置對照裝置并且變量唯一,。巴斯德最成功的地方是他動手設(shè)計了曲頸瓶。

四,、顯微鏡的考點：

①由低倍鏡換高倍鏡時視野變暗,，物象變大，視野中的數(shù)目增多,。

②顯微鏡最主要的結(jié)構(gòu)是目鏡和物鏡,。③對光時用低倍的物鏡和遮光器上的大光圈對準通光孔

④觀察裝片時：鏡筒下降時，操作者的眼睛注視物鏡,，目的避免壓碎玻片標本,。

⑤在顯微鏡視野中看到一個污點，你推測它可能存在的位置是目鏡,、物鏡,、玻片標本。先轉(zhuǎn)目再移片

⑥物鏡放大倍數(shù)越大,，鏡頭的長度越長,。目鏡放大倍數(shù)越大，鏡頭的長度越短,。

五,、生物體結(jié)構(gòu)和功能的基本單位是細胞。

動物細胞和植物細胞的區(qū)別是無細胞壁,、葉綠體,、液泡。

六、細胞分裂時,，細胞核內(nèi)的遺傳物質(zhì)先復(fù)制,。然后是細胞核一分為二，再然后是細胞質(zhì)分成兩份,。

七,、細胞分化的結(jié)果是產(chǎn)生了組織。例如：“麻雀雖小,，五臟俱全”生物體內(nèi)存在不同的結(jié)構(gòu)主要是由于細胞分化的結(jié)果,。

八,、動物體比植物體多的結(jié)構(gòu)層次是系統(tǒng),。植物體的結(jié)構(gòu)層次：細胞 組織 器官 植物體。

九,、鳥冬天換上白色的羽毛,，大大減少了被捕食的機會，有的時候冬季少雪或遲下雪,，這種情況下,，雷鳥換上白色的羽毛反而容易被捕食，這說明①生物適應(yīng)環(huán)境②適應(yīng)的相對性,。

十,、俗話說：大樹底下好乘涼，即植物多的地方,，空氣清新濕潤,。這種現(xiàn)象說明生物影響環(huán)境。

十一,、影響生物生活的因素是非生物因素和生物因素,。

例如1、菊花在秋天開放,，說明影響生物的因素是光照時間（非生物因素）,。

2、草盛豆苗稀,，影響生物生活的因素是：生物因素,。

十二1、生長在水中的睡蓮,，其根和莖都有發(fā)達并相通的氣腔,，以滿足呼吸的需要。說明生物適應(yīng)環(huán)境,。

2,、冬青冬天郁郁蔥蔥，而其它樹的葉子都已經(jīng)掉落,，這都是生物適應(yīng)環(huán)境的例子,。

3,、生物對每一種環(huán)境因素都有一定的耐受范圍。

十三,、藻類植物無根莖葉的分化,，其中水綿是多細胞的藻類；衣藻是單細胞,；大氣中90%的氧氣是由藻類植物提供的,。 （水綿葉綠體成帶狀）

十四、蕨類植物的地上部分是葉,，有根莖葉的分化,，有了輸導組織，生殖方式是孢子生殖,。

十五,、種子植物包括裸子植物和被子植物。

1,、主要區(qū)別是種子外面有無果皮包被,；

2、裸子植物的種子是裸露的,。

3,、松、衫,、柏,、銀杏是屬于裸子植物，但卷柏是屬于蕨類植物,。

4,、被子植物又叫做綠色開花植物，有根,、莖,、葉（營養(yǎng)器官）、花,、果實,、種子（生殖器官）六大器官。

十六,、1,、保衛(wèi)細胞和表皮細胞結(jié)構(gòu)的區(qū)別是保衛(wèi)細胞有葉綠體。

2,、葉片結(jié)構(gòu)包括表皮,、葉肉、葉脈。

3,、氣孔的開關(guān)和閉合受保衛(wèi)細胞控制,，氣孔主要分布在下表皮。保衛(wèi)細胞的形狀是半月形,。

4,、氣孔是植物體蒸騰失水的門戶，也是植物與外界進行氣體交換的窗口,。

5,、蒸騰作用的強弱受光照強度、環(huán)境溫度,、空氣濕度,、空氣流動狀況的影響。

十七,、蒸騰作用的意義:

1,、蒸騰作用能促進植物體從土壤中吸收水分,；

2,、促進水分和無機鹽從根部輸送到莖葉等器官。

3,、還能使植物體有效的散熱降溫,。例如：小麥結(jié)果時，根系吸收的水分主要用于蒸騰作用,。移栽植物時一般要摘掉幾個葉片或選擇陰天,、傍晚時移栽，目的是降低蒸騰作用,。

十八,、光合作用的實質(zhì)是合成有機物、儲存能量（把光能轉(zhuǎn)化為儲存在有機物中的化學能）,。而呼吸作用的實質(zhì)是分解有機物,、釋放能量，作用是為細胞的生命活動提供能量,。例如：新鮮的蘋果需要用保鮮袋包裝起來,，目的是降低呼吸作用。

十九,、地球上所有生物能量的最終是太陽能,。例如牛吃的是草，擠出來的是奶,，牛奶里有機物中的能量最終于太陽能,。兔子吃草，狼吃兔子，狼體內(nèi)的有機物中的能量最終于太陽能,。

二十,、

動物類別代表動物運動呼吸體溫其他

環(huán)節(jié)動物蚯蚓剛毛和肌肉濕潤的體壁變

溫如何區(qū)分蚯蚓的前后端？

節(jié)肢動物蝗蟲足和翅氣門（氣管）外骨骼的作用,？

魚類鯽魚鰭鰓側(cè)線的作用

鳥類家鴿翼和足肺恒溫雙重呼吸,？氣囊的作用？

哺乳類家兔足 肺特有結(jié)構(gòu)膈,，胎生哺乳

二十一,、鳥：1、嗉囊：暫時貯存和軟化食物2,、肌胃：充分研磨和初步消化食物3,、小腸：徹底消化。

二十二,、哺乳動物的運動系統(tǒng)包括：骨,、骨連結(jié)、骨骼肌,。關(guān)節(jié)的組成：關(guān)節(jié)面,、關(guān)節(jié)腔、關(guān)節(jié)囊,。

關(guān)節(jié)既牢固（關(guān)節(jié)囊及里外的韌帶）,，又靈活（關(guān)節(jié)軟骨，關(guān)節(jié)腔內(nèi)有滑液）,。 雙手提重物時,，肱二頭肌和肱三頭肌都收縮。雙臂自然下垂時,，肱二頭肌和肱三頭肌都舒張,。

二十二、根據(jù)獲得的途徑,，可以分為先天性行為（如蜜蜂采集花蜜,、育雛期的母雞照顧小貓、繁殖期的小鳥給金魚喂食）和學習行為又叫后天性行為（如黑熊表演投籃球）,。

二十三,、動物在生物圈中的作用：

1、動物能促進生物圈中的物質(zhì)的循環(huán),。

2,、動物的活動影響植物的繁衍生息。

3,、動物對于維持生物圈的生物種類和數(shù)量的相對穩(wěn)定起著十分重要的作用,。

二十四,、病毒是一類沒有細胞結(jié)構(gòu)的特殊生物。它們是由蛋白質(zhì)外殼和內(nèi)部的遺傳物質(zhì)組成,。

病毒必須寄生在活細胞內(nèi)才能生活和繁殖,。病毒營養(yǎng)方式：寄生。繁殖方式：自我復(fù)制,。

二十五,、細菌結(jié)構(gòu)：基本結(jié)構(gòu)：細胞壁、細胞膜,、細胞質(zhì),、未成形的細胞核。特殊結(jié)構(gòu)：鞭毛,、莢膜,。營養(yǎng)方式：異養(yǎng)，分腐生和寄生兩種,。繁殖方式：分裂繁殖,。

當環(huán)境變得不利于細菌生長時，有些細菌能夠形成一個橢圓的休眠體,，叫做芽孢,。

二十六、真菌結(jié)構(gòu)：細胞壁,、細胞膜,、細胞質(zhì),、細胞核,。

種類 ①單細胞真菌：如酵母菌。②多細胞真菌：如霉菌,、曲霉,、蘑菇，由菌絲構(gòu)成,。

營養(yǎng)方式：異養(yǎng) 繁殖方式：大部分真菌孢子生殖

例題1,、在一個裝片盒里，有一張細菌和一張酵母菌的永久裝片的標簽脫落了,，你可以依據(jù)什么把它們區(qū)分開來,，重新貼上標簽?zāi)兀?答：是否有成形的細胞核。

2,、生物圈中處理垃圾的“清潔工”主要是什么,？ 腐生的細菌和真菌。

二十七,、細菌真菌在生物圈的作用是：促進生物圈中的碳的循環(huán)和氮的循環(huán),。

二十八,、生物學家根據(jù)生物的形態(tài)、結(jié)構(gòu),、生活習性,，把生物劃分為界、門,、綱,、目、科,、屬,、種。